Kautilya's legacy in a multipolar world: India's strategic path to 2047

Introduction

The predicament of Bharat prior to 325 BC was met with an immaculate diagnosis by the mighty Kautilya in the form of his prescription called the Arthashastra. This meticulous and comprehensive pharmacopoeia will sure serve as a panacea for all the maladies of Bharat in 2047. Kautilya's "Arthashastra" is one of the unique paths breaking magnum opus on statecraft. His book "Arthashastra" has a broader scope, with 15 books, 150 chapters and 180 topics. This is relevant for rulers who wish to run an effective government. Among different topics dealt in this diplomacy and war, including military strategies are the two concepts which are treated in most detail. Kautilya, the ancient Indian political thinker is the intellectual forerunner of Realism. One of the key subject matters of "Arthashastra" is; it is Power and Power alone which, only when exercised by the king with impartiality and in proportion to guilt either over his son or his enemy, maintains both this world and the next. The Just and the victorious king administers justice in accordance with Dharma (established Laws), Samstha (Customary law), Nyaya (edicts, announced law) and Vyavahara (evidence and Conduct) (Shukla, 2019, xxxiii).

Vedic Literature is the main source for the study of ancient Indian political ideas and institutions. The History of the tradition of Indian politics is as old as Vedas. Politics was known in the early Smritis and Puranas as Dandaniti, whose content was a crystallization of Arthashastra and Dharma Sastra tradition (Rao, 1979, p.1). Kautilya bases his Arthashastra not only on the texts of polity that were available during his time but also on the experience and knowledge he had acquired by personal observation and study of political phenomena and institutions (Rao, 1979, p.4). Kautilya's Arthashastra was rediscovered in 1905 by Rudrapatna Samasastri, who was a Sanskrit scholar and librarian at the Oriental Research Institute Mysore. He published Arthashastra in 1909 and its first English translation was published in 1915 so we can say that it came under observation in 20th century. This was an efficacious moment in tracing roots of indigenous knowledge. Since then, Arthashastra becomes a very popular text and it is taught not only in political science but also in history, public administration, economics, sociology, ethics, commerce, management, laws, Sanskrit, defence and strategic studies and so on; this indicates the richness of content in Arthashastra. Kautilya a brilliant strategist; scientifically articulates the process of strategic and intelligence appreciation first time in the Indian strategic thought (Thakur, 2021, p.108).

This treatise was believed to be composed around the 3rd Century BCE, but still having great relevance the reason being although after the treaty of Westphalia, state becomes sovereign and state-system has been changed; but the nature of states is still same; second thing is that Kautilya was a professor of political science at the Takshashila University of ancient India, and later the mentor and chief minister of emperor Chandragupta Maurya who ruled over the mighty Indian empire in the 4th century BCE. In present times, India being a rising superpower can draw its strategic dimensions from Arthashastra moreover; security and development are inherently interlinked in globalized world. We confidently accept its pertinence to present scenario. Henry Kissinger's characterization of the Arthashastra as "a practical guide to action" highlights its enduring influence on political strategy and statecraft as it provides a detailed and pragmatic approach to governance, power, and diplomacy (Bhatia, 2016). Kautilya gives organic theory of State. He also believes in divine origin theory and according to him the prime objective of state is "Yogkshema". Which is interpreted as divine provision for attainment of balanced needs of spirituality and worldly requirement. As according to Upanisadic philosophy an individual is having different sheaths which is; "panchkosaya manava". The seven constituent elements or prakrits of State are Svamin/King, Amatya, Janapada / Rastra, Durga /Pura, Kosa, Danda /Bala and Mitra. They are arranged in descending order of importance. Each succeeding element is less important than the one before it. According to Kautilya defense of state is the responsibility of the ruler and Mitra also known as ally; whose quality and quantity determines the state's position in the political world. Means Mitra is considered as the vital force so "political isolation means death". It means State is at risk or may have to face negative consequences when it becomes isolated from global diplomatic, economic and political network. because of this many times we read about diplomatic sanctions, trade restriction, non-recognised territories in UN, in such scenario the isolated state may lose its ability to shape the global scenario. We can say political economic, social, technological, legal and environmental (PESTLE) factors are used for strategy formulation. We cannot imagine a nation-state having no such interaction in globalized world. Kautilya in his Arthashastra used the word "state policy" instead of "foreign policy". Among fifteen books almost nine books deal with international relations. These books are from book six to fourteen which are titled as:

• The Circle of Kings as the Basic
• The Six Measures of Foreign Policy
• Concerning the Topic of Calamities
• The Activity of King about to March
• Concerning War
• Policy towards Oligarchies
• Concerning the Weaker King
• Means of Taking a fort
• Concerning Secret Practices (Kangle, 1972).

King's status determines his foreign policy. That policy varies according to whether it is directed toward kings who are superior, inferior or equal to him (Modelsky, 2013). Three main policy comes under state policy and these are -

• Four Upayas
• The Six-Fold Policy or Sadhgunya
• The Mandala theory or Rajamandala or Circle of States

These are the means of overcoming opposition means they are powerful techniques. Four Upayas are one of the major objects of diplomacy. Upayas have a wider application as they are useful for securing the submission of anyone. They can be used in both domestic and external politics. These are

• Sama
• Dana
• Bheda
• Danda

Sama is the general attitude of friendliness and persuasion. It is the way of polite argument, approach-based reason, interest and loyalty. It is the method of reconciliation without aggression and in mutual respect. Dana implies monetary considerations which may include agreement involving loss, limitation of interest, withdrawal to the other party in exchange for gaining one's objects. Kautilya recommends that policies of Sama, Dana should be applied to the inferior kings. Bheda means sowing dissention or the policy of divide and rule. It is an important instrument of diplomacy through which even a strong king can be brought under subjection. According to him there are different means of sowing the seeds of disputes and conflicts. Such as by instigating and anyone of the neighboring kings, a scion of enemy's family. Danda means use of force if first three methods fail then Vijigishu should follow the policy of Danda. Danda when awarded in right manner becomes positive and helps the people as well as the states but if it is inflicted whimsically, it creates negative results. These four Upayas can be used alone or in combination of one or more than one. Depending on the circumstances Kautilya permits taking recourse of these modes singly or cumulatively. The success gained by resorting to one or more of these modes respectively as the single, double, triple or the fourfold success in accordance with the number of modes applied.

These are the four pillars of strategic policy and we usually witness Sama, Dana, Bheda, and Danda also many times in contemporary scenario. Sama and Dana such as inviting leaders of different countries and exchange of gifts between them or releasing fund during disaster or sending medical aid, formation of alliances and signing treaties. Bheda is usually practice by nations in the name of religion or nationalism in different rival countries but nation states do not talk much about in these contexts. But every country has their own intelligence system to support these Upayas such as in south Asia:

• Afghanistan: National Directorate of Security (NDS)
• Bangladesh: National Security Intelligence (NSI)
• China: Ministry of State Security (MSS)
• India: Research and Analysis Wing (RAW)
• Maldives: Maldives National Defence Force (MNDF)
• Nepal: National Investigation Department (NID)
• Pakistan: Inter-Services Intelligence (ISI)
• Sri Lanka: State Intelligence Service (SIS)

Danda is in the form of blockade, putting sanctions, taking back the status of most favored nations, interventions, boycotts, retaliation and the extreme form of Danda is war and aggression, although, they have been declared illegal means but in the contemporary scenario these are still continue in use we are witnessing this in Afghanistan, Myanmar, Iran, Syria, Yemen, Ukraine, Philistine and many more. K.M. Panikkar highlighted two dictums of the Arthashastra which are of great relevance. First and foremost is What produces unfavourable result is bad policy. Which clearly means policies, actions or decisions that creates unexpected results are bad and which creates desired or positive results are considered good policy. That indicates diplomacy is not concerned with ideals but with achieving practical results for the state. So, state may deviate from idealism for the sake of communication, negotiation, intelligence gathering, image management, and policy implementation. Second When advantages to be derived from peace and war are equal one should prefer peace, because war inflicts loss of power and wealth. Similarly, if the disadvantages to be derived from neutrality and war are equal one should prefer neutrality. So, to do better in diplomacy requires introspection, which make necessary a deeper understanding of Kautilya and the relevance of his distilled recorded wisdom of a number of centuries warfare and diplomacy (Gautam, 2013).

The Six-Fold Policy or Sadhgunya

The Six-Fold Policy or Sadhgunya it is mainly concern with foreign policy based upon the status of the actor (Modelski, 1964, p.553). It is the cornerstone of his analysis. Kautilya wishes to create a strong state with the power of dominance over the other states. The Six-Fold Policy or Sadhgunya determines the relation of states with one another. It is the fundamental philosophy of war which determines the victory or defeat of the king. Kautilya has advised Vijigishu to adhere to any of these modes, as warranted by circumstances. "The welfare of state depends on an active foreign policy. The king who understands the interdependence of the six methods of foreign policy; plays as he pleases, with other rulers bound to him by the chains of his intellect." (Rangarajan, 2000, p.564). Under this Six-Fold Policy Kautilya gave six key words for each policy

• Sandhi
• Vigraha
• Asana
• Yana
• Sansarya
• Dvaidhibhava

Kautilya's description of foreign policy is grounded on the statement that peace is preferable to war. The Sandhi means making peace by entering into an agreement with specific conditions with another ruler if that ruler is stronger than him. He speaks that 'non-intervention, negotiating a peace treaty and making a peace by giving a hostage, all mean the same thing'. The aim of peace may include different objectives. It is non- aggression strategic partnership. It can be of various types relating to the army, wealth and territory. The elaboration of various types of Sandhi's listed by Kautilya reflects his considerable attention to the problem of distinguishing between types of unequal political partnership. Broadly, Kautilya classified various kinds of Sandhi into two groups Kal Sandhi and Sthavar Sandhi. As the name suggests that Kal Sandhi is temporary alliance or short duration treaty and Sthavar Sandhi means permanent alliance or long duration treaty. In the present times also, we witness different kinds of treaties, alliances, groupings. These treaties can be bilateral or multilateral may be for short duration or long duration may be regarding political, economic or strategic issues. But now a days; after treaty of Westphalia and establishment of U.N. the treaties can also be between the nations of equal powers.

Kautilya mainly focuses on diplomacy rather than direct entry into the war. If the objectives are not achieved through Sandhi than Vigraha should be adopted. It is hostility, which includes any damage to the enemy. It is to be adopted when both the kings are equal in power spectrum. It has an offensive as well as defensive purpose. It is categorised into three classes "Prakash Yuddha" or open war, "Kuta Yuddha" or secret war and "Tusnim Yuddha" or undeclared war. Open war is fighting at a specified time and place. Secret war means terrorizing, sudden assault, threatening in one direction while attacking in another, without specifying time or place, when an enemy is suffering from a disaster or misfortune. Undeclared war is using spy system and occult practices against the enemy (Rangarajan, 2000, p.596).

Asana denotes the position where the rival kings stand alert for opening charge. Kautilya's policy of Asana appears linked to the present-day realistic approach that the states are in war or either in preparation of war. Being indifferent to a situation is staying quiet. When a king considers that neither he nor his enemy can harm the other, he shall remain quiet. Extending one's own power is preparing for war. A king with special advantages shall make preparations for war. This can be called the transition phase. Asana is different from the policy of non- involvement. It is to wait and watch and act accordingly.

Yana means execution of military campaign; as a part of six-fold policy Kautilya explained it in book seventh titled "The Six Measures of Foreign Policy" but in detail this Yana is discussed in nineth book titled "Concerning War". This reflects the significance of this in interstate relations along with this, it is totally irreversible step. It is to be adopted when the benefits of waging war are more than using other methods and the constituent elements of state are strong enough and there is increase in potential of state. So, the King who possessed necessary means shall march against his enemy. In modern times entering into war means failing of diplomacy and more stress is on peace promotion through balance of power, international law, international morality, world public opinion, international organizations, collective security, disarmament and arms control, united nations, use of peaceful means of conflict resolution and diplomacy. When all these fails nations enter into wars.

Sansarya is seeking the protection, when threatened, of a stronger king or taking refuge in a fort. If the king is devoid of strength to defend himself shall seek the protection of another. It is usually adopted when the king is very weak. According to Kautilya friendship with a more powerful monarch carries great danger for kings, except when one is actually at war with an enemy. A king shall seek the protection of one who is stronger than the neighbouring enemy. A king should seek the help of a king who loves him rather than a king who is loved by him (Rangarajan, 2000, p.602). We see such policy adoption in present times also as in August 2022 Afghan President Ashraf Ghani took refuge in the United Arab Emirates, December 2024 Bashar Al Assad took refuge in Russia, August 2024 Sheikh Hasina, along with her sister took shelter in India.

Dvaidhibhava is the last option in the six-fold policy. It is the strategy of dual policy, the policy of making peace with a neighbouring king in order to pursue, with his help, the policy of hostility towards another. It is mainly the combination of Sandhi and Vigraha at the same time. This we usually observe in the behaviour of Pakistan in south Asia.

In this way Kautilya suggested Sadhgunya policy without favouring a particular policy among the six. The policy which increases power and provides protection to the gained power is considered the appropriate one. This six-fold policy elicits the Indian strategic culture. Kautilya in his sixth book, chapter two titled "Concerning Peace and Activity" very well said that the source of peace and activity is the Six-Fold Policy. Decline, stability and advancement are the consequences of the Six-Fold Policy. (Kangle, 1972, p.336).

The Mandala theory or Rajamandala or circle of states

The Mandala theory also known as "Rajamandala" or "Circle of States". It could be described in short in modern times as the model of a loose bi-centric international system (Modelski, 1964, p.554). Where the global dynamics is shaped by two powerful, but not entirely dominant, centres of influence with interactions marked by flexibility, competition, and cooperation rather than rigid or centralized control. The mandala consists of twelve states and these are Vijigishu, Ari, Mitra, Arimitra, Mitramitra, Arimitramitra, Parsnigraha, Akranda, Parsnigrahasara, Akrandasara, Madhyama and Udasina.

Vijigishu is the king who wish for the victory and having excellent personal qualities, resources and constituents of his state, follows good policies. It is in the centre of "Circle of States". Ari (the enemy), Mitra (ally of Vijigishu), Arimitra (ally of Ari), Mitramitra (ally of Mitra), Arimitramitra (ally of Arimitra), These five states are in front of the Vijigishu state consecutively. At the rear side of Vijigishu four more states Parsnigraha (enemy of Vijigishu in rear side), Akranda (ally of Vijigishu in rear side), Parsnigrahasara (ally of Parsnigraha), Akrandasara (ally of Akranda). Madhyama (Middle King) and Udasina (Neutral King). The Middle king and the Neutral king are both outside the immediate circles of the conqueror and the enemy but powerful enough to influence the interaction between the two. It is also likely that, once the conqueror has subjugated his enemy, the Middle king may become the natural enemy, because of the common border. It is, therefore, in the conqueror's interest not to let the Middle king become too powerful. By and large the Neutral king is to be treated in the same way as the Middle king except for the fact that since he has no common borders with any, he is a bit remote from the scene of action. However, he is even more powerful than the conqueror, the enemy and the Middle king. (Rangarajan, 2000, p.676).

"Most people know little of what Kautilya actually said in the Arthashastra. The only thing they can recall is the 'mandala' theory, based on the principles: 'Every neighbouring state is an enemy and the enemy's enemy is a friend.' This popular view is not only simplistic but untrue." These lines are from the preface of the edited book "The Arthashastra" written in 1990 by L N Rangarajan. These lines are tested through R P Kangle's study. He refers to Book Seven, Chapter18 and Sutra 29. The neighbouring princes, samantas, may normally be supposed to be hostile. But it is possible that some may have a friendly feeling towards the Vijigishu, while others may even be subservient to him. Neighbouring states thus fall in three categories, aribhavin, mitrabhavin and bhrytyabhavin (Gautam,2013, p.27). So, it is wrongly assumed that all neighbours are natural enemies. The neighbour can be of hostile temperament called aribhavin, or can be of friendly temperament called mitrabhavin or can be of brotherly temperament called bhrytyabhavin. The mandala theory has mainly two objectives; first and foremost, the national security and the second one is the national interest. Interstate relations are to be deal cautiously. If interstate relations are ignored the state will soon fall prey to the conspiracy hatched by others. The solution is to remain vigilant and to treat the offence as the best defense. This establishes that the state is not only capable of defending itself but can also inflict damage on other states if need arises. According to Kautilya power and success both are important as Power is possession of strength whereas Success is obtaining happiness. Power is further classified in three-folds the power of knowledge, the power of the treasury and the power of might. (Kangle, 1972, p.338). Madhyama (Middle King) and Udasina (Neutral King) have different status in the Circle of States as they are two non-aligned powers. Madhyama occupies the territory close to Vijigishu and his immediate enemy. So, Madhyama is able to help both the kings whether they are at peace or at war or resisting either of them. On the other hand, Udasina or the neutral king who is situated beyond territory of either kings detached and very powerful. In this way, the core region in circle of the states is Vijigishu, Ari, Madhyama and Udasina. In the Circle of States, the grouping of Vijigishu, Mitra, Mitra-Mitra can be termed as friendship alliance system. In this way not more than three Kings who are each other's friend. So, when we draw parallel to it in modern times with international organisations or regional groupings, we say that; they are objective based alliances but not friendship alliances. In the Mandala, the proximity among different kings is established through both in an official and unofficial manner, at official level through envoy and at unofficial level through spy system. These two institutions have pivotal role concerning the states internal as well as external security.

Envoys

For the conduct of foreign policy, the coordination of diplomatic entities and the relevant due procedure is also of prime importance. Kautilya has gone into the details of appointment of envoys, their normal and specific duties and their privileges and exemptions. They are basically the spokesperson of the king. Kautilya categorised them in three groups in the order of merit respectively Nisrishtarth, Parimitartha and Shasnahar. Kautilya in his first book and sixteenth chapter regarding envoy mentioned that the appointment of envoy should be followed if choice of decision is there. "One endowed with the excellences of a minister is the plenipotentiary. One lacking in a quarter of the qualities is the envoy with a limited mission. One lacking in half the qualities is the bearer of a message" (Kangle, 1972, p.53). This shows that if a person is having less than half of the qualities of minister, he should not be appointed as envoy. Along with this Nisrishtarth is the envoy having all the qualities of being a minister and status equal to minister. Parimitartha is the envoy having three-fourth of the qualities of being a minister authorised to come to terms in a specified mode and Shasnahar is the envoy having three-fourth of the qualities of a minister and empowered to communicate political messages only.

Spies

For the support of interstate relations Kautilya supports appointment of persons in secret service, we can also call spying agent. Kautilya is in favour of disseminating spies to have a constant surveillance among the friends, enemy, Madhyama, Udasina as well as among the high officers of each of those kings. Along with these types of spies and verification of the reports by spies is also needed. Regarding spies Kautilya in first book and eleventh chapter mentioned "With the body of ministers proved upright by means of secret tests, the king should appoint persons in secret service, the sharp pupil, the apostate monk, the seeming householder, the seeming trader and the seeming ascetic, as well as the secret agent, the bravo, the poison giver and the begging nun. A pupil, knowing the secrets of others, and bold, is the sharp pupil. Encouraging him with money and honour". (Kangle, 1972, p.36). Kautilya advises the king to develop his state by raising its resources and power. Concerning this, spy system plays an important role and is an essential element for the maintenance of internal security as well as for interstate affairs.

Conclusion

Kautilya was not war maniac, what he suggested is for the security and progress of the state. He is more concerned to Vijigishu rather than international society. This made his remarkable similarity with realism; the power view of international politics. The core element of his prescription are statism, self-help and survival. Further he is more concerned with the end result, so end justifies the means. Much of his focus was on strategy rather than entering into war. One of the famous quotes from Arthashastra is that "the arrow shot by an archer may or may not kill a single person, but skilful intrigue devised by wise man, may kill even those who are in womb" (Kangle, 1972, p.857). We are indebted of Kautilya because of his detailed explanation of four Upayas, the Six-Fold Policy or Sadhgunya and the Mandala theory or Rajamandala or Circle of States which still enlightens us. Arthashastra is so rich that still it appears unexplored in dealing with contemporary security challenges. Kautilya's foreign policy analysis have no parallel elsewhere.